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GTIP Orientation Piece - Research
Margaret Roberts discusses the role of research in ITE courses and looks at research that is relevant to geographical education. She also provides a model of the different actors and contexts in which research into geographical education can be mapped.
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| Student teacher in library. © BananaStock Ltd |
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| What does it mean to be a research-based profession? |
In spite of the fact that the word ‘research’ does not appear in the current list of standards that trainee teachers have to demonstrate in order to gain qualified teacher status, current government rhetoric is in favour of classroom teaching being supported by research. The phrases used vary: ‘research-led’, ‘research-based’, ‘evidence based’, and ‘classroom-focussed research’, but they all imply that there should be a connection between educational research and practice. How this connection is conceptualised, however, also varies:- Hargreaves (1996) has argued that teaching should be ‘evidence-based’. This suggests a direct relationship between research and application in the classroom.
- Hannon sees the role of research somewhat differently. He states: ‘teachers do not use research as a cookbook but as a resource in constructing their view of what is worth aiming for and likely ways to get it’ (1998, p. 151). This view gives greater emphasis to examining underpinning values.
The idea that research should inform teacher professionalism is not new; ‘Research as a basis for teaching’ was the title of Stenhouse’s inaugural lecture in 1979.
Elliott (1991) wrote about teaching and research being integrated through action research. More recently, Slater (2003) has examined the relationship between research and practice in terms of personal professional development, impact through diffusion and improvement of practice through action research.
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| What is the role of theory? |
People often talk about theory and practice as separate entities with theory being associated with higher education components of initial teacher education and practice associated with school-based components. This separation of theory and practice seems misguided (Pring, 2000; Carr, 1995; Bruner, 1996).
What happens in schools is informed by assumptions and beliefs about, for example, what is worth learning, how young people learn, how they are motivated, and how they might be assessed. These practices cannot stand apart from implicit theoretical frameworks.
Similarly, since education is a practice, theories of education cannot be developed separately from practice and then applied; they are developed in relation to practice.
Theory and practice are intricately inter-related. Theory helps us make sense of practice.
If we aim to develop teachers who are capable of making their own professional judgements and contributions, then they need to consider alternative practices and their implicit theoretical underpinning. The Geographical Association has encouraged teachers to link theory and practice through its Theory into Practice series.
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| What role can research have in courses of initial teacher education? |
Course content: If we are to develop awareness of alternatives, then we need to do more than impart the wisdom developed from experience. We need to make trainee teachers aware of issues related to what is studied and to new understandings developed through research. This is a formidable task for a new tutor. Good starting points would be general books on teaching geography that raise issues and summarise research.
Course processes: We as teacher educators can model explicitly, in our own practice, the processes that are being studied, e.g. debriefing, formative and summative assessment, and relate this modelling to the research literature.
Seminars: Selected readings can be presented for study and discussion.
Trainee teachers’ own small-scale research:- Observing and analysing lessons of teachers or peers in order to increase their understanding of classroom processes and ways of thinking about them.
- Carrying out small-scale research within their school experience school, e.g. action research.
- Collecting data for an assignment and relating findings to research.
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| What has been researched that is relevant to geographical education? |
The most comprehensive list of research into geographical and environmental education is that compiled by Foskett and Marsden (1998, 2001). Their Bibliographies categorise texts into themes.
Gerber and Williams (2000), in an international overview, analyse stages of growth in the culture of research in geographical education, identify areas which have received attention and provide a useful agenda for future research.
A series of articles published in the International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE, 1993, volume 2, number 1) provide a useful discussion of issues related to quality in research in geography education. IRGEEcontinues to publish articles of great relevance to teachers.
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I have devised a model (Roberts, 2000a; see Figure 1) of the research arena on which the different actors and contexts were identified and onto which research into geographical education could be mapped. Such mapping can be used to identify areas of research attention and neglect.
Download Figure 1 and associated reference list here.
Areas of attention include: - textbook research
- children’s understanding of maps
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| Figure 1: Roberts' research model. |
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Areas of neglect include: - children’s prior understanding of concepts in human geography;
learners’ use and understanding of resources other than maps;
- processes of teaching and learning in real-life classroom situations.
Investigation of issues through a range of scale, e.g. from national policy to how it impacts on learning in the classroom.
Much generic research into education is highly relevant to geography teachers, e.g. research on assessment.
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| How can geographical education be investigated? |
How educational research is carried out is not value-free. There are different ways of investigating geographical education and these methodologies, together with their associated research methods, are underpinned by different assumptions and beliefs about education and knowledge.
Pring (2000) provides an overview of different approaches to educational research. Williams (1996) and Slater (1996) provide examples of how the different methodologies and methods have been applied to geographical education.
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The role of research in supporting teaching and learning in geography is greater than just providing information on what works in the classroom. Research has a role in asking critical questions about purposes, in challenging assumptions and in identifying underpinning values. The application of ‘evidence’ from research entails more than copying the strategies that others have developed. It often demands significant changes in thinking about teaching and learning.
Research into geographical education can help us see things differently. It can empower teachers to construct their own understandings, to clarify their own values and to have professional confidence to make changes in classroom practices.
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What does it mean to be a research-based profession?
Hannon, P. (1998) ‘An ecological perspective on educational research’ in Rudduck, R. and McIntyre, D. Challenges for Educational Research. London: Paul Chapman.
Hargreaves, D. (1996) ‘Teaching as a research-based profession: possibilities and prospects’. Teacher Training Agency annual lecture.
Hillage, J., Pearson, R., Anderson, A. and Tamkin, P. (1998) Excellence in Research on Schools. London: DfEE.
Slater, F. (2003) ‘Exploring relationships between teaching and research in geography education’ in Gerber, R. (ed) International Handbook on Geographical Education. Kluwer Academic.
Stenhouse, L. (1985) ‘Research as a basis for teaching’ in Rudduck, J. and Hopkins, D. (eds) Research as a Basis for Teaching: Readings from the work of Lawrence Stenhouse. London: Heinemann.
TTA (1996) Teaching as a Research-based Profession. TTA Policy Statement.
What is the role of theory?
Bruner, J. (1996) The Culture of Education. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press (Chapter 2 examines ways of thinking about the minds of learners and how these can influence practice).
Carr, W. (1995) For Education. Buckingham: Open University Press (Chapter 1 argues that ‘theory is an indispensable dimension of practice’).
Pring, R. (2000) Philosophy of Educational Research. London: Continuum.
What role can research have in courses of initial teacher education?
Roberts, M. (2000) ‘The role of research in supporting teaching and learning’ in Kent, A. (ed) Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching. London: Paul Chapman (gives examples of the ways research has been used on one ITE course).
General texts on geographical education
Butt, G. (2002) Reflective Teaching of Geography 11-18. London: Continuum.
Lambert, D. and Balderstone, D. (2000) Learning to Teach Geography in the Secondary School. London: Routledge Falmer.
Leat, D. (ed) (1998) Thinking through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Nichols, A. with Kinninment, D. (2001) More Thinking through Geography. Cambridge: Chris Kington Publishing.
Roberts, M. (2003) Learning through Enquiry: Making Sense of Geography in the Key Stage 3 Classroom. Sheffield: Geographical Association.
Examples of generic research on one aspect of education
Assessment
Black, P. J. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the Black Box: raising standards through classroom assessment. London: King's College London.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. (2002) Working Inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. London: King's College London.
Lambert, D. and Lines, D. (2000) Understanding Assessment. London: Routledge.
Weeden, P., Winter, J. and Broadfoot, P. (2002) Assessment. London: Routledge.
Action research
Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Leat, D. and Lin, M. (2003) 'Developing a pedagogy of metacognition and transfer: some signposts for the generation and use of knowledge and the creation of research partnerships', British Educational Research Journal, 29, 3, pp. 383-415.
What has been researched that is relevant for geographical education?
Foskett, N. and Marsden, B. (eds) (1998) A Bibliography of Geographical Education 1970–1997. Sheffield: Geographical Association.
Foskett, N. and Marsden, B. (eds) (2001) A Bibliography of Geographical Education Supplement 1998-99. Sheffield: Geographical Association.
Gerber, R. and Williams, M. (2000) ‘Overview and international perspectives’ in Kent, A. (ed) Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Roberts, M. (2000a) 'The role of research in supporting teaching and learning', in Kent, A. (Ed) Reflective Practice in Geography Teaching, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
Roberts, M. (2000b) ‘The role of research in the initial teacher education of geography teachers’ in Fisher, C. and Binns, T. (eds) Issues in Geography Teaching. London: Routledge.
Articles on research into geographical education can be found in journals:
Geography and International Research into Geographical and Environmental Education (IRGEE)
How can geographical education be investigated?
Pring, R. (2000) Philosophy of Educational Research. London: Continuum Publishing (discusses different approaches to educational research and the values implicit in them).
Slater, F. (1996) ‘Illustrating research in geographical education’ in Kent, A., Lambert, D., Naish, M. and Slater, F. (eds) Geography in Education: Viewpoints on teaching and learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Williams, M. (1996) Understanding Geographical and Environmental Education: The role of research. London: Cassell (outlines different methodologies of educational research and how they have been applied to geographical education).
Rawling, E. (2006) Connecting Policy and Practice: Research in Geography Education
This BERA report available from the TTRB website considers the relationship of policy and practice for school geography between 1980 and 2000.
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Kelly, A. (2005) 'Exploring children's geographies at key stage two', IRGEE, 14, 4, 342-347. Abstract
Mackintosh, M. (2005) 'Children’s understanding of rivers', IRGEE, 14, 4, 316-322. Abstract
Martin, F. (2005) 'Ethnogeography: a future for primary geography and primary geography research', IRGEE, 14, 4, 364-371. Abstract
Wiegand, P. (2002) 'Analysis of discourse in collaborative cartographic problem solving', IRGEE, 11, 2, 138-158. Abstract
Butt, G. (1998) 'Increasing the effectiveness of "audience-centred" teaching in geography', IRGEE, 7, 3, 203-218. Abstract
Butt, G, Weeden, P. & Wood, P. (2004) 'Boys' underachievement in geography: an issue of ability, attitude or assessment?' IRGEE, 13, 4, 329-347. Abstract
Corney, G. (2006) 'Education for Sustainable Development: An Empirical Study of the Tensions and Challenges Faced by Geography Student Teacher', IRGEE, 15, 3, 224-240. Abstract
Hopkin, J. (2001) 'The world according to geography textbooks: interpretations of the English national curriculum', IRGEE, 10, 1, 46-67. Abstract
Leat, D. & Nichols, A. (2000) 'Observing pupils' mental strategies: signposts for scaffolding', IRGEE, 9, 1, 19-35. Abstract
Rickinson, M. (1999) 'People-environment issues in the geography classroom: towards an understanding of students' experiences', IRGEE, 8, 2, 120-139. Abstract
Trend, R. (2001) 'An investigation into the understanding of geological time among 17 year old students, with implications for the subject matter knowledge of future teachers', IRGEE, 10, 3, 298-321. Abstract
Van der Schee, J. (2001) 'How to train students to formulate good research questions', IRGEE, 10, 3, 245-259. Abstract
Van der Schee, Vankan, L. & Leat, D. (2003) 'The international challenge of more thinking through geography', IRGEE, 12, 4, 330-343. Abstract
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(Updated 29.05.08)
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